English Literature books summary

ravenous brutes‹will be free to attack him.

O'Brien casually mentions Winston's recurring nightmare, and tells him

what he already knows: that behind the dark wall of his nightmare were

rats. Winston, beyond panic, begs O'Brien to tell him what he wishes him to

do. O'Brien does not answer, but engages in a sort of ponderous mental

torture by bringing the contraption closer and pedantically musing on rats.

Winston's terror increases, but at the last moment it occurs to him

what must be done, and that is to beg that this be done to Julia rather

than to him.

He has saved himself; O'Brien shuts the cage door rather than opens

it.

Chapter 6

Summary:

It is 15:00 and Winston sits alone in the Chestnut Tree Cafe. He is

anxiously listening for news of the war with Eurasia.

However, Winston is not able to keep his mind on one topic for very

long these days, and he gulps down his glass of clove-flavored gin. He is

fatter and pinker now‹to the point of looking unhealthy. Without being

asked, a waiter brings him the current issue of the Times, opened to the

chess problem, and a chessboard; he sees that Winston's glass is empty and

refills it. The waiters know Winston's habits and bill him irregularly

(and, he suspects, they undercharge him), though with his new higher-paying

job this wouldn't have presented a problem either way.

An announcement from the Ministry of Plenty reveals that Oceania is in

the midst of the Tenth Three-Year Plan. Winston starts to attack the chess

problem. The telescreen announcer advises everyone to listen for an

important announcement at 15:30, which Winston knows must be about the

fighting in Africa. He has the sinking feeling that it will be bad news;

the thought that this could lead to the end of the Party triggers a

powerful but unclear reaction in him. He imagines a mysterious force

assembling to the rear of the Eurasian army, cutting off its

communications, and feels that by willing it he can bring that force into

existence.

His thoughts wander; almost unconsciously he traces the equation "2 +

2 = 5" on the table. He recalls Julia saying "They can't get inside you,"

but knows she is wrong; he remembers O'Brien saying "What happens to you

here is for ever," and knows he is right.

He had encountered Julia one freezing, dead March day in the Park.

Knowing that the Party no longer cared about what he did, he had followed

her, but not very eagerly. Something about her had changed. She had not

been particularly excited about having him around, but resigned herself.

They walked. He had put his arm around her waist; she did not respond. He

had realized that the change in her was not so much the scar across her

face or her pallor, but that her waist had thickened and stiffened into

something like a corpse or marble.

They did not speak or kiss. When Julia looked at him, it was with

contempt and dislike. They seated themselves on a bench and finally Julia

had said, "I betrayed you." He told her he had betrayed her as well. From

her explanation‹that they threaten you with the unendurable and you place

your loved one inside it instead of yourself, thereby changing forever how

you feel about the person‹it seems apparent that she, too, had been taken

to Room 101.

There was nothing more to say, and they had parted uncomfortably, with

empty words about meeting again, but really only the desire to get away

from one another.

Recalling Julia's words about betrayal, Winston reflects that he had

really wished for her to be devoured by the rats instead of himself‹but

before he can even get to the word "rats" in his thoughts (which we know he

will never do anyway), a voice from the telescreen starts to sing, "Under

the spreading chestnut tree, I sold you and you sold me . . ."

Winston's eyes fill with tears. A waiter passes by and refills his

glass; he thinks about how dependent he has become on gin, drinking it

every hour of the day. No one cares how he spends his days. His "job"

involves dealing with trivialities that arise from the current work being

done on the Eleventh Edition of the Newspeak Dictionary. His sub-sub-

committee consists of four other people like himself.

He thinks briefly again about the struggle in Africa, then picks up a

chess piece, and somehow triggers a memory of his childhood. His mother,

after entreating him to be good, had bought him the game Snakes and

Ladders, and although he had not been interested in it at first, he was

soon captivated, and the three of them had a happy, enjoyable afternoon.

Recalling himself, Winston shakes this off as a false memory, and is

picking up the chess piece again when a trumpet-call from the telescreen

startles him. The trumpet-call always signifies a victory, and excitement

spreads through the cafe and the streets like wildfire. The announcement is

that the very strategy Winston had imagined has taken place, utterly

defeating Eurasia and giving Oceania control of all of Africa.

Caught up in the excitement of this news, Winston looks up at the

portrait of Big Brother, overwhelmed, and feels the "final, healing

change": He loves Big Brother.

Appendix

Summary:

The Appendix details the underlying principles of Newspeak

(essentially that it was designed to limit the range of thought), and

details the word classes as follows:

The A vocabulary consisted of everyday words used in the expression of

simple thoughts, usually involving concrete objects or physical actions.

The B vocabulary consisted of words created to hold political

connotations and impose a politically desirable state of mind upon the

user. These were all compound words, like "Ingsoc" or "doublethink." Many

meant the opposite of what they really were, in keeping with the concept of

doublethink.

The C vocabulary consisted of scientific and technical terms which it

behooved no one but scientists and technicians to use.

The grammar of Newspeak had two notable characteristics:

There was an almost complete interchangeability between different parts

of speech. A noun and verb were basically the same, and formed the

root for all other forms of the word. Adjectives were formed by

tacking "-ful" onto the end of the word; adverbs, by adding the suffix

"-wise." Any word could be negated by the prefix "un-," and other

prefixes like "plus-" and "doubleplus-" could strengthen the word.

The grammar was exceedingly regular, with very few exceptions. All past

tenses were formed using "-ed," all plurals with "-s" or "-es," and

comparatives with "-er" and "-est."

Euphony was privileged above everything, including grammatical

regularity, except precision of meaning. This is because the end goal was

to produce words that could be spoken so quickly that they would not have

the time to prompt thought; in other words, so that people could speak

without thinking at all.

The meanings of Newspeak words were carefully controlled so that in many

cases most connotations were destroyed. For instance, the word "free" still

existed, but only in the sense of something being "free from" something

else, e.g. "This field is free from weeds." It could not be used with

reference to political freedom, as this meaning had been drilled out of the

word.

This also precluded the ability to argue heretical opinions. Though, for

instance, it would have been possible to say "Big Brother is ungood," there

were not the words necessary to defend or argue this assertion. Through

this process, Oldspeak would become not only obsolete but impossible to

understand or translate, since its words hold meanings and can express

ideas that would be inexpressible in Newspeak (except using the single word

"crimethink").

Animal Farm by G.Orwell

Chapter One: Summary

As the story opens on Mr. Jones's farm, the farm animals are preparing

to meet after Mr. Jones goes to sleep, to hear the words that the old and

well-respected pig, Old Major, wants to say to them. The animals gather

around as Old Major tells them that he had a dream the previous night and

senses that he will not live much longer. As the animals prepare for his

speech, the narrator identifies several of the animals which will become

more important in the story: the cart-horses Boxer and Clover, the old

donkey Benjamin, and Mollie the pretty mare. Before he dies, he wants to

tell the animals what he has observed and learned in his twelve years. Old

Major goes on to say that animals in England are cruelly kept in slavery by

man, who steals the animals' labor and is "the only creature that consumes

without producing". He describes his vision of an England in which animals

are free and live in complete harmony and cooperation, free of the tyranny

of man and his evil habits.

Old Major tells the animals that they must all band together to fight

the common enemy, Man, and rise up in rebellion when the opportunity comes.

He exhorts them to remain true to their animal ways, and then leads them in

a rousing song of revolution, called "Beasts of England". They are stirred

into a frenzy by Old Major's speech and sing the song five consecutive

times, until Mr. Jones stirs and fires a shot into the air to quiet them

down. Soon the whole farm falls asleep.

Chapter Two: Summary

Three days later, Old Major dies and is buried. His revolutionary

fervor lives on, and the animals begin to flesh in the revolutionary

ideology with which they will overthrow Mr. Jones. Two of the pigs,

Snowball and Napoleon, emerge as the leaders of the animals. Snowball is

naturally vivacious, while Napoleon "has a reputation for getting his own

way". Another pig named Squealer also becomes prominent for his persuasive

speaking ability. These three pigs create a system of tenets and name it

"Animalism," and begin imparting it to the rest of the animals, often

simplifying and slowly reasoning with the less-intelligent animals such as

the Sheep, or the frivolous animals, like Mollie the white mare. The cart-

horses Boxer and Clover are the most responsive of all the animals, and

Moses the tame raven is the most difficult animal for the pigs to persuade

to join the revolution. Moses claims that he knows of the existence of a

magical place called Sugarcandy Mountain, and his tales are a constant

distraction to the other animals.

Revolution comes earlier than anyone expected, when Mr. Jones gets so

drunk that he is unable to go feed the animals. After a day and a half

without food, the hungry animals finally riot and break into the feeding

area themselves, prompting Mr. Jones and his field hands to come outside.

The animals attack them with a vengeance, and the men flee, leaving Manor

Farm to the animals. Mrs. Jones wakes up during the commotion, and when she

discovers what has happened, she runs off with a suitcase of clothes

herself. The animals rejoice, walking over the farm to examine their

property, curiously investigate the farmhouse interior, and celebrate with

extra rations of food. The next morning, Snowball repaints the sign reading

"Manor Farm" to say "Animal Farm," and he and Napoleon introduce the

animals to The Seven Commandments, which form the tenets of their

"Animalism":

Whatever goes upon two legs is an enemy.

Whatever goes upon four legs, or has wings, is a friend.

No animal shall wear clothes.

No animal shall sleep in a bed.

No animal shall drink alcohol.

No animal shall kill another animal.

All animals are created equal.

The cows by this time need milking, so the pigs manage to milk them.

Several of the animals want some of the milk for themselves, but Napoleon

distracts them, saying that they have more important things to attend to

and that he will take care of it. Later that day, the animals notice that

the milk had disappeared.

Chapter Three: Summary

The Animalism regime begins very promisingly, with all the animals

working industriously to improve the farm, and enjoying the feeling of self-

governance and "animal pride" which their regime produces. Inspired by the

idea that they would enjoy the fruits of their own labors for the first

time, the animals overcome the challenges of farming without man and bring

in the largest harvest Animal Farm has ever produced. Boxer the horse

becomes a model of hard work and devotion to the cause, and adopts the

personal motto, "I will work harder". The pigs do not actually perform any

work, but instead supervise and coordinate the work for the rest of the

animals. Mollie the mare is the only animal who shirks work. Benjamin, the

old donkey, remains unchanged after the revolution, and cryptically says

that "Donkeys live a long time." The animals observe a flag-raising ritual

on Sundays, which is a day of rest for them. Snowball forms an array of

committees aimed at social improvements, education, training, and the like.

The education program achieves the greatest success, with all the animals

achieving some degree of literacy. After the discovery that the stupider

animals could not learn the Seven Commandments, Snowball reduces the tenets

down to the maxim "Four legs good, two legs bad," which even the sheep can

memorize, and bleat for hours on end. The dogs have a litter of nine

puppies, which Napoleon takes under the guise of educating them. He keeps

them secluded in the loft, and soon the other animals forget about them.

After the apple harvest, the pigs announce that they will reserve all the

apples and milk for themselves, to fuel the strenuous efforts required to

manage the farm. The other animals reluctantly acquiesce.

Chapter Four: Summary

News of the rebellion at Animal Farm spreads quickly to the rest of

the animals in England, and the words to "Beasts of England" can soon be

heard on farms everywhere. Emboldened by the Animal Farm revolution, other

previously subdued animals begin displaying subversive behavior in subtle

ways, such as tearing down fences and throwing riders. This development

alarms the local farmers, who have listened to Mr. Jones's tale of woe at

the Red Lion tavern where he now spends most of his time. Alarmed by the

developments at Animal Farm and the threat of revolution spreading, the

townsmen band together with Mr. Jones and attempt to reclaim his farm. The

animals successfully defend it, led by the strategy and bravery of

Snowball. A young farm hand is thrown to the ground by Boxer, and at first

it appears that he has been killed, but he gains consciousness a few

moments later and runs off. At the first gunshot, Mollie the mare runs into

the barn in terror and buries her head in the hay. Snowball and Boxer are

given medals for their courageous fighting.

Chapter Five: Summary

Unhappy with the new workload at Animal Farm, Mollie runs away to work

pulling a dogcart for a man who feeds her sugar lumps, and she is never

spoken of again. When winter comes, Snowball begins talking of a plan to

build a windmill to bring electricity to the farm. Snowball has spent much

of his spare time reading Mr. Jones's old books on farming techniques, and

he envisions an Animal Farm where increased productivity will result in

less work and more comfortable lifestyles for all the animals. Napoleon,

who by this times disagrees with Snowball about almost everything, is

bitterly opposed, and the animals become divided into two camps of

supporters. Napoleon and Snowball also disagree about the best course of

defense for the farm, with Snowball advocating the spread of the

revolutionary spirit to neighboring farms, while Napoleon feels the animals

should procure weapons and develop a military force. The animals are set to

vote, and after Snowball's impassioned speech, Napoleon whistles for nine

large dogs (the puppies that he has trained), and they attack Snowball and

drive him off the farm. Napoleon becomes the single leader of the animals,

abolishes their weekly debates and meetings, and announces that they will

go through with the windmill scheme after all. The animals are initially

dismayed by these developments, but Squealer eventually smoothes things

over.

Chapter Six: Summary

The animals begin working like slaves to complete the harvest and

build the windmill. Napoleon announces that the animals will now perform

"voluntary" work on Sundays. Though the work is officially called

voluntary, any animal who does not participate will have their food rations

cut in half. To finance the completion of the windmill, Napoleon announces

that Animal Farm will begin trading with the men who run nearby farms. The

animals think they remember Old Major speaking against evil human habits

such as trade. Squealer convinces the animals that they are only imagining

it. The sight of Napoleon on four legs conducting business with the farm's

trade agent Mr. Whymper, who stands upright, makes the animals so proud

that they ignore their misgivings. The pigs then move into the farmhouse,

and Squealer again convinces that animals that they are only imagining the

earlier rules against sleeping in beds. Some of the animals go to check the

Fourth Commandment, and discover that it actually reads "No animal shall

sleep in a bed with sheets". Rather than realizing that the Commandment has

been altered, the animals accept that they must have forgotten the ending

before. The windmill is destroyed in a storm, and Napoleon blames it on

Snowball, and places a reward on his head.

Chapter Seven: Summary

A hard winter comes, and the animals face near-starvation. To hide the

food shortage from the outside world, Napoleon fills the grain bins with

sand to fool Mr. Whymper. He also plants several animals at strategic

locations during Mr. Whymper's visits so that he can hear them making

"casual" (and false) remarks about food surpluses and increased rations.

Napoleon announces the plan to sell a pile of timber to one of two

neighboring farmers, Mr. Frederick or Mr. Pilkington. At Napoleon's

bidding, Squealer announces that the hens will have to give up their eggs

to be sold for money to buy grain. The hens refuse at first, but Napoleon

cuts off their food rations until they relent, after nine of them have died

from starvation. All sorts of acts of mischief and vandalism begin to

surface, which are immediately attributed to Snowball. Soon after, Napoleon

announces that an attempted rebellion has been discovered, and has several

of the farm animals executed. The remaining animals react with fear and

horror, and huddle around Clover the mare for comfort. She reminds them of

Old Major's glorious speech and leads them all in "Beasts of England,"

which prompts Napoleon to forbid the singing of the song and replace it

with the song "Animal Farm, Animal Farm, never through me shall thou come

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