English Literature books summary

believes that Cassio is talking of Desdemona, which is the last "proof" he

needs before declaring his wife guilty. Bianca comes in, and gives the

handkerchief back to Cassio, since she swears she will have nothing to do

with it.

Othello is incensed by Cassio, still believing that he was speaking of

Desdemona, rather than Bianca. Now, Othello is resolved to kill Desdemona

himself, and charges Iago with murdering Cassio. Ludovico, a noble Venetian

whom Desdemona knows, has recently landed; Desdemona and Othello welcome

him there. But, when Desdemona mentions Cassio, Othello becomes very angry

and slaps her in front of everyone; she rushes off, very upset. Ludovico

especially is shocked at this change in Othello, and has no idea how such a

noble man could act so cruelly.

Act IV, scene ii:

Othello questions Emilia about Desdemona's guilt, or the chance she has had

an affair with Cassio. Emilia admits to having seen nothing, though Othello

does not believe her. Emilia swears that she has seen and heard all that

has gone on between Cassio and Desdemona, and that Desdemona is pure and

true. Othello believes that Emilia is in on all this too; he accuses

Desdemona, and her insistence that she is innocent only infuriates him

further. Othello leaves, and Desdemona and Emilia try to figure out what

has happened to Othello, and what they can do; Desdemona feels especially

helpless, and Emilia is very angry. Emilia thinks that someone has

manipulated Othello into accusing Desdemona, and has poisoned his mind;

however, Iago is there to dispel this opinion, so that Emilia does not

inquire further into her theory. Upon leaving the women, Iago comes across

Roderigo; he is not pleased with how Iago has handled things, and knows

that although Iago is promising him Desdemona's favor, he has done nothing

to indicate that he has worked to achieve this. Iago quiets him by making

him believe that if he kills Cassio, then he will win Desdemona; Roderigo

decides to go along with it, but Iago is coming dangerously close to being

revealed.

Act IV, scene iii:

Othello tells Desdemona to go to bed, and dismiss Emilia; Emilia regrets

Desdemona's marriage, although Desdemona cannot say that she does not love

Othello. Desdemona knows that she will die soon; she sings a song of

sadness and resignation, and decides to give herself to her fate. Desdemona

asks Emilia whether she would commit adultery to win her husband the world.

Emilia, the more practical one, thinks that it is not too big a price for a

small act; Desdemona is too good, and too devout, to say that she would do

so.

Act V, scene i:

Iago has Roderigo poised and ready to pounce on Cassio, and kill him; if

either of them is killed, it is to Iago's benefit, although he would like

to have both of them disposed of, so that his devices might not be

discovered. Roderigo and Cassio fight, and both are injured; Othello hears

the scuffle, is pleased, and then leaves to finish off Desdemona. Iago

enters, pretending that he knows nothing of the scuffle; Gratiano and

Ludovico also stumble upon the scene, having no idea what has happened.

Roderigo is still alive, so Iago feigns a quarrel, and finishes him off.

Bianca comes by, and sees Cassio wounded; Iago makes some remark to

implicate her; Cassio is carried away, and Roderigo is already dead. Emilia

also comes in, and pins more blame on Bianca; she has done nothing, but

Iago has some quick work to do if he is to exonerate himself in this mess.

Act V, scene ii:

Othello enters Desdemona's room while she is asleep; and though she is

beautiful, and appears innocent, he still is determined to kill her. He

justifies this with images, metaphors, and ideas of her rebirth after

death, and though his rage is softened, he is still much mistaken about

her. Desdemona awakens, and he tells her to repent of any sins before she

dies; she believes there is nothing she can do to stop him from killing

her, and continues to assert her innocence. Othello tells her that he found

her handkerchief with Cassio, though Desdemona insists it must not be true;

she pleads with Othello not to kill her right then, but he begins to

smother her. Emilia knocks, curious about what is going on; Othello lets

her in, but tries to conceal Desdemona, who he thinks is already dead.

Emilia brings the news of Roderigo's death, and Cassio's wounding.

Emilia soon finds out that Desdemona is nearly dead, by Othello's hand;

Desdemona speaks her last words, and then Emilia pounces on Othello for

committing this horrible crime. Othello is not convinced of his folly until

Iago confesses his part, and Cassio speaks of the use of the handkerchief;

then, Othello is overcome with grief. Iago stabs Emilia for telling all

about his plots, and then Emilia dies; the Venetian nobles reveal that

Brabantio, Desdemona's father, is dead, and so cannot be grieved by this

tragedy now. Othello stabs Iago when he is brought back in; Othello then

tells all present to remember him how he is, and kills himself. Cassio

becomes temporary leader of the troops at Cyprus, and Lodovico and Gratiano

are supposed to carry the news of the tragedy back to Venice. Iago is taken

into custody, and his crimes will be judged back in Venice.

Richard III

Act One, Scene One

Richard gives a short speech detailing his plot against his brother

Clarence, who comes before him as heir to the throne of England. Richard

has just succeeded in having Clarence arrested and it as a prisoner that

Clarence walks onto the stage, guarded by Sir Robert Brackenbury.

Richard asks Clarence what the reason for his arrest is. Clarence replies

that someone told King Edward that a person with a name starting with the

letter "G" would cause his family to lose the throne. Since Clarence's full

name is George, Duke of Clarence, he was considered to be the primary

suspect. Richard complains that this arrest is the result of the women

plotting against Clarence, most notably Queen Elizabeth and possibly also

Mrs. Shore.

Brackenbury tells the men he is not allowed to let anyone converse with the

prisoner, and takes Clarence into the Tower of London. Richard comments

that he will soon remove Clarence permanently and thus clear the path to

the throne for himself.

Lord Hastings, also known as Lord Chamberlain, emerges from the Tower,

having just been freed. Lord Hastings tells Richard that King Edward IV is

sickly and ailing, and cannot hope to live much longer. After he departs,

Richard remarks that he will first have Edward kill Clarence. This will put

Richard into a position where upon Edward's death he can assume the throne.

He also plots to marry Lady Anne Neville, who is the widow of Edward,

Prince of Wales and the daughter-in-law of Henry VI, whom Richard just

killed.

Act One, Scene Two

Lady Anne enters the stage accompanied by halberdiers who are carrying an

open coffin with King Henry VI in it. She asks the men to stop, during

which time she laments the death of the king. Lady Anne then curses any

future children which Richard might have, and prays that after Richard's

death his future wife will know even more grief than Lady Anne currently

feels.

Richard enters and is immediately cursed by Lady Anne for his role in the

death of her husband. Richard tries to woo her by telling how lovely he

thinks she it, but Lady Anne scorns him after each attempt. He finally

tells her that he killed her husband so that he alone could love her. In a

moment of decision, Richard bends down on his knees and tells her to kill

him if she cannot forgive him. She replies, "I will not be thy executioner"

(1.2.172)

Richard stands up and proposes marriage to her, succeeding in making Lady

Anne wear his ring. He tells her to go wait for him in one of his London

residences while he mourns the death of Henry VI. Lady Anne leaves after

saying farewell to Richard, who delivers a soliloquy in which he expresses

surprise about the fact that she seems to like his looks.

Act One, Scene Three

Queen Elizabeth enters the stage with Lord Rivers and Lord Gray. They

discuss the fact that King Edward is ill. Queen Elizabeth is apprehensive

about her future if he should die. She remarks that Richard Gloucester

becomes her son's Protector if Edward passes away, and that Richard does

not like her or her companions.

The Duke of Buckingham and Lord Stanley arrive. They have just been to see

the king, and they inform Queen Elizabeth that he is looking well.

Buckingham informs her that the king want to meet with her brothers and

with Richard in order to get them to make peace.

Richard and Lord Hastings enter the room, with Richard complaining bitterly

about the lies which "they" tell the king. When asked who "they" are,

Richard implicates the queen's brother, Lord Rivers, and her two sons. He

then blames them for the recent imprisonment of Lord Hastings, and for the

current jailing of his brother Clarence. Queen Elizabeth is outraged at

these suggestions, and threatens to tell the king.

Queen Margaret arrives, she is the widow of Henry VI and the mother of

Edward whom Richard killed. She speaks directly to the audience, without

the other characters hearing her. She remarks that Queen Elizabeth has her

to thank for the throne, and calls Richard a devil for the murders he

committed.

Richard defends himself vehemently, pointing out his fierce loyalty to his

brother Edward. He then points out the fact that the Queen and her brother

fought against his brother in the war between the House of Lancaster and

the House of York, to which Richard belongs.

Queen Margaret, fed up with the arguments and accusations, steps forward

and addresses them all. She plans to tell them once again about how Richard

killed her son Edward, but all of the gathered characters attack her for

having killed Rutland. This refers to a previous play in which Margaret

crowns the Duke of York with a paper crown and waves a handkerchief dipped

in his son Rutland's blood in front of his eyes. She tells them that

because her Edward died, so too must the current Edward, Prince of Wales

meet his death.

Following several curses made by Margaret, most of which are directed at

Richard, the entire company is summoned into King Edward's chambers.

Richard remains behind and meets with two murderers whom he sends to kill

Clarence. A revealing quote is when Richard says, "And thus I clothe my

naked villainy / With odd old ends, stol'n forth of Holy Writ," meaning he

hides his crimes with Christian behavior.

Act One, Scene Four

Clarence and Brackenbury enter the stage. Clarence has had a terrible

nightmare in which he breaks free of the Tower and attempts to cross to

Burgundy accompanied by his brother Richard. While on the ship, Richard

stumbles. When Clarence tries to help support him, he is flung into the

ocean by Richard, where he slowly drowns.

Clarence falls asleep with Brackenbury sitting next to him for protection.

The two murderers sent by Richard arrive and hand Brackenbury their

commission. He acknowledges the paper which says to hand his prisoner over

to the two men.

The first murderer has a sudden attack of conscience. He is able to

overcome this by remembering the large reward which Richard is paying him.

The second murderer tells his companion to drive the devil out of his mind,

since the devil is only confusing him. Clarence wakes up and asks for a cup

of wine.

The murders engage Clarence in conversation, and inform him that he will

die. He pleads to their sense of Christianity, at which they list his many

sins, most notably the killing of Henry VI's son Edward. Clarence then begs

the men to talk to Richard, whom he promises will reward them well. They

inform him that Richard is the man who sent them, a fact that Clarence

cannot believe. He seems about to overcome them with his persuasive words

when the first murderer stabs and kills him. The second murderer refuses to

participate, and even declines to receive his part of the reward.

Act Two, Scene One

King Edward enters, followed by most of court who previously went to his

chambers. He carefully orchestrates a scene of friendship after ordering

them to forgive each other. His orders to each man tell them exactly how he

wants them to behave, including whose hand to shake, or who should kiss the

hand of the queen.

Richard enters this farce and is ordered to forget his hatred of the Queen

and her family. He does this, but when the Queen tells him to bring

Clarence back to court, he immediately destroys the entire scene. Richard

replies, "Who knows not that the gentle Duke is dead?" (2.1.80), at which

all the other actors are shocked.

King Edward delivers a brief speech lamenting the fact that his brother

Clarence has been killed by his orders. He recalls the many times that

Clarence saved his life or helped him attain the throne. King Edward then

departs. Richard asks Buckingham if he noticed how guilty the Queen's

kindred looked when the news of Clarence's death was announced.

Act Two, Scene Two

The old Duchess of York, the mother of King Edward, Clarence and Richard,

enters with Clarence's two children. She is mourning the death of Clarence,

but for the children's sake instead pretends to be upset about Edward's bad

health. However, after a few moments Queen Elizabeth enters with her hair

disheveled, and announces that King Edward has also died.

The Duchess of York remarks that all she has left is Richard, about whom

she says, "And I for comfort have but one false glass" (2.2.53). The

children tell the Queen that since she did not grieve for their father,

they will not grieve for King Edward. The Duchess tells them all that she

accepts all of their suffering and will lament for them.

Richard enters and convinces them to travel to Ludlow where the young

Prince Edward is staying. They all agree that it is safer for them all to

go, before leaving the stage. Buckingham tells Richard to go with them, so

that no one will think that he is plotting to seize the throne.

Act Two, Scene Three

Some citizens discuss the fact that King Edward is dead. They are afraid of

a fight to seize the thrown, with one of them commenting, "Woe to the land

that's governed by a child" (2.3.11). Their fear is that Richard or the

sons and brother of the Queen will attempt to overthrow the young monarch.

Act Two, Scene Four

Queen Elizabeth, the Duchess of York, the Lord Cardinal, and the young Duke

of York discuss the the stories of Richard's childhood. Shakespeare alludes

to a myth that he was born with teeth. Dorset enters the room with bad

news.

He tells them that Buckingham and Richard have imprisoned Lord Rivers and

Lord Gray. The Queen is frightened for her family, which she clearly sees

being wiped out if Richard can get his way. She decides to go into

sanctuary, meaning a church, with the young Duke of York so that they will

have protection. The sanctuary is initially for forty days.

Act Three, Scene One

The young Prince Edward, accompanied by Richard and Buckingham and several

other men, has arrived in London. He immediately asks where his mother and

brother York are, and why they have not come to see him. Hastings tells the

prince that his mother sought sanctuary. Buckingham cleverly argues that

the young York may not have sanctuary since he is only a child and

therefore has not reason to hide, since he has obviously not committed any

crimes.

Richard then asks the prince if he is willing to spend the night in the

Tower of London, which is the traditional place for kings to stay on the

night before their coronation. Edward, however, fears the Tower as a prison

and is reluctant. Richard convinces him it is better to stay there since it

is so well protected.

The young York arrives and he and Prince Edward depart for the Tower.

Richard tells Catesby to see whether Lord Hastings can be won over to his

side, rather than supporting Prince Edward. Catesby thinks that Hastings

will defend Prince Edward, and Richard indicates that he will kill him if

that is the case. Richard also mentions that there will be "divided

councels" the next morning, meaning a public council for Edward's

coronation, and a private council to plot for Richard.

Act Three, Scene Two

Lord Hastings is rudely awakened at four in the morning by a messenger. He

is told that Lord Stanley is there to see him, having had a bad dream in

which he was beheaded by a boar (Richard's emblem is the boar). Catesby

arrives before Stanley and tells Hastings that Richard wants the crown of

England, but Hastings announces that he will die before Richard be allowed

to wear the crown.

Catesby then tells Hastings that his enemies, the Queen's sons and her

brother, are to be executed that day. Stanley arrives and announces that he

is upset about the fact that there are two separate councils. He and

Catesby leave for the Tower of London. A pursuivant (basically, a messenger

with the authority to serve an arrest warrant) enters and receives some

money from Hastings. Buckingham then enters and Hastings tells him that he

will eat lunch at the Tower. Buckingham indicates to the audience that

Hastings will also eat supper there, although he does not yet know it.

Act Three, Scene Three

Gray and Rivers are forced onto stage as prisoners, while Ratcliffe watches

over them. The two condemned men remark that it is Margaret's curse which

has condemned them to die. Rivers remarks, "Then cursed she Hastings; then

cursed she Buckingham; Then cursed she Richard." (3.3.16) The men then

embrace and agree to meet again in heaven.

Act Three, Scene Four

A council meets in the Tower to discuss when the coronation day for Edward

should be held. Richard enters late, bids the men a good day, and calls

Buckingham aside. Buckingham tells Richard that Hastings will never support

him.

Hastings says that it is a good thing that Richard is in such good spirits,

because it means he does not dislike any of the men present. Buckingham and

Richard reenter the room. Richard asks what the punishment for traitors

should be, to which Hastings replies that they deserve death. Richard then

blames the Queen and Mrs. Shore (who is the mistress of Hastings) with

having caused his malformed arm. He accuses Hastings of protecting Shore,

and orders the council to behead Hastings. Richard then leaves, followed by

most of the council.

Act Three, Scene Five

The Lord Mayor of London arrives at the Tower. Catesby delivers Hastings'

head, at which point both Buckingham and Richard must try to mollify the

Lord Mayor. They tell him that Hastings was plotting against them both, and

that he confessed as much in the Tower. They ask the Lord Mayor to inform

the people of what happened, since he is better placed to placate the

masses then they are.

Richard then sends Buckingham to follow the Lord Mayor. He wants Buckingham

to tell the people that the children of Edward are illegitimate, which

would require that the eldest illegitimate child should take the throne.

Richard then wants Buckingham to convince the people that he is also an

illegitimate child of Edward, and thus he should receive the throne.

Act Three, Scene Six

A scrivener enters, with a paper that fully details the treachery of Lord

Hastings. The paper is meant to support Richard and Buckingham, but the

scrivener points out that it took eleven hours to write, during which time

Hastings was still alive. The scrivener asks who is so foolish that they

cannot see the discrepancy in times, but he answers his own question by

remarking, "Yet who so bold but says he sees it not?" (3.6.12)

Act Three, Scene Seven

Buckingham informs Richard that his speech to the crowd went over very

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