English Literature books summary

die for nothing. He realizes that he has been unable to revenge his

father's death, but decides that now is the time for decisive action.

Hamlet says, "O, from this time forth / My thoughts be bloody or be nothing

worth" (4.4.9.55-56).

Act Four, Scene Five

Horatio begs Queen Gertrude to come see what has happened to Ophelia. She

reluctantly agrees, and Ophelia enters singing to herself. Ophelia has gone

completely mad due to the death of her father and the loss of Hamlet, and

she incoherently sings her songs rather than respond to Gertrude.

Claudius arrives and Gertrude shows him what has happened to Ophelia. She

continues singing, the songs getting raunchier as she continues. Finally

Ophelia tells them that Laertes must find out about the death of their

father, and she leaves to go find him. Horatio follows her in order to keep

an eye on her.

Claudius tells Gertrude that they made a mistake in trying to secretly

dispose of Polonius. He further informs her that Laertes has secretly come

from France to Denmark to avenge his father's death. A noise interrupts

him, and a messenger rushes in telling Claudius to save himself. He asks

what the problem is, and learns that Laertes has gathered a mob of citizens

together and rushed the castle, breaking past all the guards. The mob wants

to make Laertes king and is therefore fighting for him.

Laertes bursts through the doors and tells the mob to wait for him outside.

He then demands that Claudius reveal to him why Polonius was killed.

Gertrude intervenes and informs Laertes that Claudius did not kill his

father. Laertes then demands to know who his real enemy is. Ophelia enters

at that moment, completely mad, and gives them each some flowers. Claudius

turns to Laertes after Ophelia leaves and tells him that he will personally

arrange his revenge.

Act Four, Scene Six

Horatio receives a letter from Hamlet which tells him a strange story. The

ship Hamlet was on was caught by pirates, and Hamlet alone boarded the

pirate ship. After the battle was over he became their prisoner but was

treated well because he could do them a favor. Guildenstern and Rosencrantz

are still on their way to England.

Act Four, Scene Seven

Claudius has explained to Laertes that Hamlet killed Polonius. Laertes asks

why Hamlet was not punished at the time and Claudius says that it was for

his mother's sake. Laertes tells Claudius that his revenge will come soon.

Some messengers arrive and hand Claudius letters from Hamlet. He is

surprised to receive the letters, and reads his out loud. The letter

indicates that Hamlet is returning to Denmark alone. Laertes is excited by

this because it means that he will be able to revenge his father's death.

Claudius asks him to "be ruled" and listen to a plot which will make

Hamlet's death seem like an accident, even though Laertes will be allowed

to kill him.

Claudius proposes that Laertes fight Hamlet in a fencing match with

rapiers. Laertes agrees to this provided he be allowed to put poison on the

tip of his rapier so that even the slightest scratch will cause Hamlet to

die. Claudius is uncertain as to whether they can trust the poison, and so

he offers to also create a poison drink for Hamlet. That way, they will

have two ways of killing Hamlet and will not fail.

Gertrude enters the room and informs Laertes that Ophelia has drowned

herself while sitting on a willow branch over a brook. Laertes is overcome

with grief and starts to shed tears for his sister. He leaves the room but

Claudius urges Gertrude to follow him for fear that Laertes will erupt in

rage again.

Act Five, Scene One

Two gravediggers (clowns) are digging out Ophelia's grave. They discuss the

fact that Ophelia drowned herself, and therefore should not receive a

Christian burial under Christian law. However, the one gravedigger points

out that the coroner has declared it a natural death rather than a suicide,

and therefore they must dig the grave for her.

Hamlet overhears the first gravedigger singing to himself and remarks on

the fact that the man is so cheerful at his occupation. Horatio tells him

that it must come from doing the job for such a long time. Hamlet

approaches the man and asks him whose grave it is. The gravedigger, taking

every word literally, tells him, "Mine, sir" (5.1.109). Hamlet finally

gives up asking and instead inquires for news about Prince Hamlet while

pretending to be someone else.

The gravedigger tells him that Hamlet was sent to England because he was

mad. He then informs Hamlet that a body will last in the grave for eight or

nine years at the most. He picks up a skull and shows it to Hamlet, telling

him it has been in the earth for twenty-three years. Hamlet asks whose

skull it is, and is shocked to learn that it is the skull of Yorick, a

jester who entertained him as a youth. He comments that even parts of

Alexander the Great's body might now be used as a flask stopper and they

would never know it.

Hamlet and Horatio run and hide when they hear Claudius, Gertrude, Laertes,

and other attendants arriving. Hamlet wonders whose corpse they are

carrying with them to the grave. He overhears Laertes arguing with the

priest about the last rites. Due to the strange manner of Ophelia's death,

the priest will only allow the body to be buried in holy ground, but he

refuses to read her the prayers. Hamlet soon realizes that the body is that

of Ophelia.

Laertes is so overcome with emotion once the coffin has been placed into

the grave that he leaps in after it. Hamlet, seeing this, reveals himself

and jumps into the grave as well. Laertes immediately grabs Hamlet by the

throat and starts to choke him. Claudius order the other men present to

pull them apart and Hamlet shouts that he loved Ophelia more than forty

thousand of her brothers combined. He tells Laertes that, "I loved you

ever. But it is no matter. / Let Hercules himself do what he may, / The cat

will mew, and dog will have his day" (5.1.275-278). Hamlet leaves and

Horatio follows him.

Act Five, Scene Two

Hamlet tells Horatio what really happened on the way to England. He rose on

night and stole the letters that Rosencrantz and Guildenstern were taking

to the King of England. The letters told the king to kill Hamlet and listed

several reasons why this would benefit both nations. Hamlet immediately

wrote out several new letters and sealed them using his signet. The new

letters ordered that the two men accompanying him should be put to death.

Hamlet is not at all upset about ordering his two "friends" to die in

England since, "they did make love to this employment" (5.2.58). Horatio

warns Hamlet that Claudius will soon discover what has happened when news

arrives from England.

A man named Osric arrives and tells Hamlet that he has news from the king

for him. Hamlet plays a game with the man, telling him to alternately put

on and take off his hat. Osric finally gets frustrated with the game and

informs Hamlet that Laertes, whom he describes in glowing terms, has placed

a wager with Claudius. Claudius has bet Laertes that he cannot beat Hamlet

by at least three hits in a fencing match with twelve passes. Hamlet agrees

to the match and orders Osric to have them bring out the foils.

A lord soon enters and tells Hamlet that everything is prepared and that

they are waiting for Hamlet to come. He further tells Hamlet that Gertrude

wishes that he would treat Laertes with respect and courtesy, to which

Hamlet agrees. Horatio tells Hamlet that, "You will lose this wager, my

lord" (5.2.147), but Hamlet tells him that he has been in continual

practice since Laertes left for France. Horatio again tries to dissuade him

from fencing with Laertes, and again Hamlet tells him that he will go and

fight.

Claudius and the rest of the court arrive and Claudius orders Hamlet to

greet Laertes. Hamlet offers Laertes an apology for killing Polonius and

blames the act on his madness. Laertes stiffly asserts that his honor is

still at stake and that he must therefore have his revenge. They then call

for the foils and prepare for the match.

Claudius orders his attendants to bring him a cask of wine. He then

announces that if Hamlet is able to score a hit in the first, second or

third exchange then he will drink some wine and drop a pearl of exceptional

value into the cup for Hamlet. Claudius then drinks to Hamlet as a salute

for good luck and orders them to begin.

Hamlet and Laertes fight until Hamlet shouts, "One" (5.2.220). Laertes

disputes the hit and Osric decides in favor of Hamlet. Claudius halts the

match and drops a pearl into his wine cup. He then offers the cup to

Hamlet, who refuses to take it and tells him that he would rather continue

the match. They fight and Hamlet again claims a hit that Laertes grants

him. Gertrude takes the cup with the pearl in it and offers to drink for

Hamlet. Claudius begs her not to, but she ignores him and drinks anyway,

thereby ingesting the poison that Claudius had planned to give to Hamlet.

Laertes meanwhile has poisoned his rapier's tip and in the next scuffle he

manages to wound Hamlet. They continue fighting and Hamlet accidentally

exchanges rapiers with Laertes after which he wounds him as well. Both men

stop fighting when they realize that Gertrude has fallen onto the ground.

She tells Hamlet, "The drink, the drink - I am poisoned" (5.2.253) before

she dies. Laertes also falls to the ground from the poison he received when

Hamlet wounded him. He tells Hamlet that both of them are poisoned to death

and blames the king for everything.

Hamlet, realizing that the point of the rapier is envenomed, slashes at

Claudius and wounds him with it. The courtiers cry out, "Treason, treason!"

(5.2.265), but they cannot stop Hamlet who has also grabbed the poisoned

wine and is making Claudius drink it. Claudius quickly dies from the

poison. Laertes, still barely alive, tells Hamlet that he forgives him for

Polonius' death before he too dies.

Hamlet orders Horatio to stay alive and report everything he knows to the

public. Horatio instead has grabbed the cup and is preparing to commit

suicide, but at Hamlet's plea he relinquishes the poison. Osric enters the

room and tells them that Fortinbras has arrived with his army. Hamlet gives

Fortinbras his vote to become the next King of Denmark before he dies.

Fortinbras and the English ambassadors arrive together. Fortinbras looks

over the scene of carnage and compares it too a massacre. The Englishmen

inform Horatio that Rosencrantz and Guildenstern have been put to death.

Horatio takes charge and tells Fortinbras and the ambassadors to put the

bodies on a stage in view of the public so that he may tell the full story

of what has happened. Fortinbras agrees with this and orders his men to

obey Horatio. He compares the scene to a battlefield and ends the play by

ordering the soldiers to shoot their guns in honor of Hamlet's death.

King Lear

Act I Summary: scene i:

Gloucester and Kent, loyal to King Lear, objectively discuss his

division of the kingdom (as Lear is preparing to step down) and to which

dukes, Cornwall and Albany, they believe it will equally fall. Kent is

introduced to Gloucester's illegitimate son, Edmund. Gloucester

nonchalantly admits that the boy's breeding has been his charge ever since

impregnating another woman soon after his legitimate son, Edgar, was born.

Kent is pleased to meet Edmund. Gloucester mentions that Edmund has been

nine years in military service and will return shortly.

Lear enters and sends Gloucester to find France and Burgundy,

Cordelia's suitors. He then begins to discuss the partitioning of Britain

he has devised to each of his three daughters and their husbands. Lear

decides to ask each of his daughters to express how much they love him

before he hands over their piece of the kingdom. As oldest, Goneril speaks

first, expressing her love as all encompassing. Regan adds that she is

enemy to other joys. Lear gives each their parcel, wishing them well.

Cordelia, as the youngest and most liked daughter, is saved the choicest

piece of land. However, she responds to her father's request by saying she

has nothing to add. She loves only as much as her obligation entitles and

will save some of her love for a husband. Lear is enraged and hurt. After

giving her a few chances, he strips Cordelia of any title or relation. Kent

intercedes on her behalf but he too is estranged by Lear. Kent cries that

honesty will continue to be his guide in any kingdom.

Cordelia's suitors enter. Lear apprises them of Cordelia's new state of

non-inheritance. Burgundy cannot accept her under the circumstances, but

France finds her more appealing and takes her as his wife. Cordelia is not

unhappy to leave her sisters and leaves with France. Goneril and Regan

conspire to take rule away from Lear quickly as he is becoming more

unreasonable.

scene ii:

The scene centers around Edmund, at first alone on stage, crying out

against his position as bastard to the material world. He is envious of

Edgar, the legitimate son, and wishes to gain what he has by forging a

treasonous letter concerning Gloucester from Edgar. Gloucester enters,

amazed at the events which have occurred during the last scene. He wishes

to know why Edmund is hiding a letter and demands to see it. He shrewdly

acts as if he is embarrassed to show it to Gloucester and continually makes

excuses for Edgar's apparent behavior. Gloucester reads the letter

detailing "Edgar's" call to Edmund to take their father's land from him.

Edmund asks that he not make too quick a judgment before they talk to Edgar

as perhaps he is simply testing Edmund. He suggests forming a meeting where

Edmund can ask Edgar about his proposals while Gloucester listens in

secret. Gloucester agrees, musing on the effects of nature and its

predictions. He leaves directly before Edgar enters. Edmund brings up the

astronomical predictions he had discussed with Gloucester and alerts Edmund

that Gloucester is very upset with him, though he knows not why. Edmund

offers to take Edgar back to his lodging until he can bring he and

Gloucester together and advises him to go armed. Edgar leaves and Edmund

notes that he will soon take his due through wit.

scene iii:

Scene iii reintroduces Goneril, as she is outraged by the offenses she

contends Lear has been showing her since moving into her residence. He has

struck Oswald for criticizing his fool, his knights are riotous and so on,

she claims. Lear is out hunting. Goneril commands Oswald to allow her

privacy from Lear and to treat Lear with "weary negligence". She does not

want him to be happy, hoping that he will move to Regan's where she knows

he will face the same contempt. She demands Oswald to treat his knights

coldly as well. She leaves to write Regan.

scene iv:

Kent enters, disguised and hoping to serve in secret as a servant to

Lear so that he can help him though he is condemned. Lear accepts to try

him as a servant.Oswald comes in quickly before exiting again curtly. A

knight tells Lear that Goneril is not well and that Oswald answered him

curtly as well. The knight fears Lear is being treated wrongly. Lear had

blamed himself for any coldness but agrees to look into a problem in

Goneril's household. Lear's fool has hidden himself since Cordelia's

departure so Lear sends the knight for him. Oswald reenters, showing Lear

the negligence Goneril had suggested. Lear and Kent strike him, endearing

Kent in Lear's eyes. Oswald exits as Fool enters. Fool persistently mocks

and ridicules Lear for his actions in scene i, his mistreatment of

Cordelia, trust in Goneril and Regan, and giving up of his authority. He

calls Lear himself a fool, noting he has given away all other titles. The

fool notes that he is punished by Lear if he lies, punished by the

household if he speaks the truth, and often punished for staying silent.

Goneril harps on the trouble Lear and his retinue are causing, such as

the insolence of Fool and the riotous behavior of the knights. She states

that he is not showing her the proper respect and consideration by allowing

these actions to occur. Lear is incredulous. Goneril continues by adding

that as Lear's large, frenzied train cannot be controlled she will have to

ask him to keep fewer than his hundred knights. Outraged, Lear admits that

Goneril's offense makes Cordelia's seem small. As Albany enters, Lear

curses Goneril with infertility or, in its stead, a thankless child. He

then finds that his train has already been halved and again rages against

the incredible impudence Goneril has shown him. He angrily leaves for

Regan's residence. Albany does not approve of Goneril's behavior and is

criticized by her for being weak. Goneril sends Oswald with a letter to her

sister, detailing her fear that Lear is dangerous and should be curtailed

as soon as possible.

scene v:

Impatient, Lear sends the disguised Kent to bring letters to

Gloucester. The Fool wisely warns that Regan will likely act no better than

her sister had. He criticizes Lear for giving away his own home and place,

using examples such as a snail carrying his shell. Lear recognizes he will

have to subdue his fatherly instincts toward Regan as well. Fool points out

that Lear has gotten old before he is wise. Lear cries out, praying that he

will not go mad.

Act II Summary: scene i:

Act II begins with a return to the secondary plot of Edmund, Edgar, and

Gloucester. Edmund speaks with the courtier, Curan, who advises him that

Regan and Cornwall will arrive shortly at Gloucester's castle. He also

passes on the gossip that there may soon be a war between Cornwall and

Albany. After Curan leaves, Edmund expresses his delight over the news he

has learned as he can use that in his plot. Edgar enters and Edmund

cleverly asks if he has offended Cornwall or Albany. Edgar says he has not.

Edmund cries that he hears Gloucester coming and forces Edgar to draw his

sword with him. Telling Edgar to flee, Edmund then wounds himself with his

sword before calling out to Gloucester for help. Gloucester arrives quickly

and sends servants to chase down the villain. Edmund explains that he would

not allow Edgar to persuade him into murdering their father causing Edgar

to slash him with his sword. He continues that Edgar threatened him and by

no means intended to permit Edmund, an "unpossessing bastard", to stop him

from his evil plot. Gloucester is indignant and claims that Edgar will be

captured and punished. He promises that Edmund will become the heir of his

land.

At this point, Cornwall and Regan enter the scene, wondering if the

gossip they had heard about Edgar is correct. Gloucester confirms it is.

Edmund cleverly confirms Regan's fear that Edgar was acting as part of

Lear's riotous knights. Cornwall acknowledges the good act Edmund has done

for Gloucester and promises to take him into their favor. After Gloucester

and Edmund thank them, Regan explains why she and Cornwall have come to

Gloucester's castle. She had received a letter from Goneril and so had left

home to avoid Lear. She asks for Gloucester's assistance.

scene ii:

Oswald, Goneril's servant, and Kent, still disguised as Lear's servant

Caius, meet at Gloucester's castle after first trekking to Cornwall's

residence with messages. Oswald does not first recognize Kent but Kent

recognizes him and responds to him curtly with curses and name-calling. He

claims that Oswald comes with letters against the King and sides with his

evil daughter. He calls Oswald to draw his sword at which Oswald cries out

for help. The noise brings in Edmund, Cornwall, Regan, Gloucester, and some

servants.

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