English Literature books summary

Lancelot then makes a joke, and says that Lorenzo is a bad man because by

converting all the Jews he is raising the price of pork (since Jews do not

eat pork, but Christians do). Lorenzo then arrives and orders Lancelot to

go inside and prepare the table for dinner. He and Jessica praise Portia

for being such a wonderful hostess before entering the house to get their

dinner.

Act IV, Scene One

Antonio is brought before the Duke and the magnificoes of Venice to stand

trial for failing to pay off his obligation to Shylock. The Duke is upset

about the penalty, a pound of Antonio's flesh, but cannot find any lawful

way of freeing Antonio from his bond. Shylock enters the court and the Duke

tells him that all of the men gathered there expect him to pardon Antonio

and forgive the debt.

Shylock replies that he has already sworn by his Sabbath that he will take

his pound of flesh from Antonio. He is unable to provide a good reason for

wanting to punish Antonio in this manner, other than to say, "So can I give

no reason, nor I will not, / More than a lodged hate and a certain loathing

/ I bear Antonio" (4.1.58-60).

Bassanio then comes forward and offers Shylock the six thousand ducats as

repayment for the loan. Shylock tells him that even if there were six times

as much money offered to him, he would not take it. The Duke asks Shylock,

"How shalt thou hope for mercy, rend'ring none?" (4.1.87). Shylock responds

that he is doing nothing wrong, and compares his contract with Antonio to

the Christian slave trade. He tells the Duke that he does not demand that

the Christians should free their slaves, and therefore the Christians

should not demand that he free Antonio.

The Duke threatens to dismiss the court without settling the suit brought

by Shylock if Doctor Bellario fails to arrive. Salerio tells him that a

messenger has just come from Bellario, and Nerissa enters dressed as a man

and informs the Duke that Bellario has sent a letter to him. Shylock whets

his knife on his shoe, confident that he will receive his pound of flesh.

The letter from Bellario recommends a young and educated doctor to

arbitrate the case. The Duke asks where the young doctor is, and Nerissa

tells him that he is waiting outside to be admitted into the court. The

Duke orders him to be brought in, and Portia enters dressed as a man,

pretending to be a doctor named Balthasar.

Portia tells the Duke that she has thoroughly studied the case and then

asks, "Which is the merchant here, and which the Jew?" (4.1.169). Antonio

and Shylock both step forward, and Portia asks Antonio if he confesses to

signing the contract. He does, and Portia then says that Shylock therefore

must be merciful. She delivers a short speech on mercy, but Shylock ignores

it and demands the contract be fulfilled. Portia then asks if no one has

been able to repay the amount, but since Shylock has refused the money

there is nothing she can do to make him take it. She comments that she must

therefore side with Shylock.

Shylock, impressed that Portia is supporting his case, says, "A Daniel come

to judgment, yea, a Daniel!" (4.1.218). Portia rules that Shylock has the

right to claim a pound of flesh from next to Antonio's heart according to

the bond. Antonio's bosom is laid bare and Shylock gets ready to cut.

Portia asks him if he has a surgeon ready to stop the bleeding once he has

taken his pound of flesh. Shylock says, "I cannot find it. 'Tis not in the

bond" (4.1.257).

Just as Shylock is about to start cutting again, Portia says that the bond

does not give him permission to shed Antonio's blood. The laws of Venice

are such that if any Venetian's blood is shed, all the goods and lands of

the perpetrator may be confiscated by the state. Shylock realizes that he

cannot cut the flesh without drawing blood, and instead agrees to take the

money instead. However, Portia is not willing to back down and instead only

gives him the pound of flesh, further saying that if he takes a tiny bit

more or less he will be put to death himself. Shylock, unable to comply

with this stipulation, decides to withdraw his case.

Portia tells Shylock to remain in the court. She says that Venice has a

further law which says that if any foreigner tries to kill a Venetian, the

foreigner will have half of his property go to the Venetian against whom he

plotted, and the state will receive the other half. In addition, the life

of the foreigner will be in the hands of the Duke, who may decide to do

whatever he wants to. Shylock is forced to kneel on the ground before the

court, but the Duke pardons his life before he can beg for mercy.

Shylock instead asks the Duke to kill him, saying, "Nay, take my life and

all, pardon not that. / You take my house when you do take the prop / That

doth sustain my house; you take my life /When you do take the means whereby

I live" (4.1.369-373). Antonio intervenes on Shylock's behalf, and asks the

Duke to allow Shylock to keep half of his wealth. He further offers to take

care of the half he was awarded as a form of inheritance for Jessica and

Lorenzo. The only requirements Antonio puts on his offer are that Shylock

must convert and become a Christian, and further that he must give

everything he owns to Lorenzo upon his death.

Shylock, wretched and having lost everything he owns, tells the court that

he is content to accept these conditions. The Duke leaves and tells Antonio

to thank the young doctor who has saved his life. Bassanio and Graziano go

to Portia and thank her profusely, and Bassanio offers the young doctor

anything he wants. Portia decides to test her husband's trustworthiness,

and asks him for the engagement ring, the ring which she made him vow never

to part with. He refuses, and Portia and Nerissa leave. However, at

Antonio's urging, Bassanio takes off the ring and gives it to Graziano,

telling him to take it to Portia and invite her to dinner that night at

Antonio's.

Act IV, Scene Two

Portia gives Nerissa the deed by which Shylock will pass his inheritance to

Lorenzo. She tells Nerissa to take it to Shylock's house and make him sign

it. At the moment Graziano catches up with the two women and gives the ring

to Portia. She is surprised that Bassanio parted with it after all, and

Nerissa decides to test Graziano in the same way. Nerissa takes the deed

and asks Graziano to show her the way to Shylock's house.

Act V, Scene One

Lorenzo and Jessica, still at Belmont, sit outside and enjoy the night.

They compare the night to the stories of Troilus and Cressida, Pyramus and

Thisbe, and Dido and Aeneus, and then extend the analogy to their own love

affair. They are interrupted by Stefano, who tells them that Portia is

returning home with Nerissa. Lancelot then arrives and informs Lorenzo that

Bassanio will also be back by morning. Both Lorenzo and Jessica return to

the house and listen to music.

Portia and Nerissa, dressed as themselves again, return home and enter the

building. Lorenzo recognizes Portia's voice and comes to greet her. She

orders the servants to pretend as if she had never left, and asks Lorenzo

and Jessica to do the same. Soon thereafter Bassanio, Graziano and Antonio

arrive.

Nerissa demands that Graziano show her the ring he gave away to Portia's

"clerk" in Venice. They start to argue over it, with Graziano defending his

action as a form of kindness for Antonio. Portia overhears them and

pretends to "discover" what happened. She then demands that Bassanio show

her his ring, which he of course cannot do. Portia and Nerissa then berate

their husbands for giving away the rings, and even tell them that they

would prefer to sleep with the doctor and his clerk rather than with their

unfaithful husbands.

Antonio offers his assurance that neither Bassanio nor Graziano will ever

give away their wives' gifts again. Portia thanks him and asks him to give

Bassanio another ring to keep. Bassanio looks at the ring and recognizes it

as being the same ring he gave away. Portia then tells him that the doctor

came back to Belmont and slept with her. Bassanio is amazed and does not

know how to respond.

Portia finally clears up the confusion by informing Bassanio that she and

Nerissa were the doctor and the clerk. She further has good news for

Antonio, namely a letter that indicates that three of his ships arrived in

port safely. Nerissa then hands Lorenzo the deed from Shylock in which he

inherits everything after Shylock dies. The play ends with Graziano

promising to forever keep Nerissa's ring safe.

Othello

Act I, scene i:

Othello begins in the city of Venice, at night; Roderigo is having a

discussion with Iago, who is bitter at being passed up as Othello's

lieutenant. Though Iago had greater practice in battle and in military

matters, Cassio, a man of strategy but of little experience, was named

lieutenant by Othello. Iago says that he only serves Othello to further

himself, and makes shows of his allegiance only for his own gain; he is

playing false, and admits that his nature is not at all what it seems. Iago

is aware that the daughter of Brabantio, a Venetian nobleman of some

stature, has run off with Othello, the black warrior of the Moors.

Desdemona is Brabantio's daughter, and Brabantio, and many others, know

nothing of this coupling; Iago decides to enlist Roderigo, who lusts after

Desdemona, and awaken Brabantio with screams that his daughter is gone.

At first, Brabantio dismisses these cries in the dark; but when he realizes

his daughter is not there, he gives the news some credence. Roderigo is the

one speaking most to Brabantio, but Iago is there too, hidden, yelling

unsavory things about Othello and his intentions toward Desdemona.

Brabantio panics, and calls for people to try and find his daughter; Iago

leaves, not wanting anyone to find out that he betrayed his own leader, and

Brabantio begins to search for his daughter.

Act I, scene ii:

Iago has now joined Othello, and has told Othello about Roderigo's betrayal

of the news of his marriage to Brabantio's daughter. He tells Othello that

Brabantio is upset, and will probably try to tear Desdemona from him.

Cassio comes at last, as do Roderigo and Brabantio; Iago threatens Roderigo

with violence, again making a false show of his loyalty to Othello.

Brabantio is very angry, swearing that Othello must have bewitched his

daughter, and that the state will not decide for him in this case. Othello

says that the Duke must hear him, and decide in his favor, or else all is

far from right in Venice.

Act I, scene iii:

Military conflict is challenging the Venetian stronghold of Cyprus; there

are reports that Turkish ships are heading toward the island, which means

some defense will be necessary. Brabantio and Othello enter the assembled

Venetian leaders, who are discussing this military matter, and Brabantio

announces his grievance against Othello for marrying his daughter. Othello

addresses the company, admitting that he did marry Desdemona, but wooed her

with stories, and did her no wrongs. Desdemona comes to speak, and she

confirms Othello's words; Brabantio's grievance is denied, and Desdemona

will indeed stay with Othello. However, Othello is called away to Cyprus,

to help with the conflict there; he begs that Desdemona be able to go with

him, since they have been married for so little time. Othello and Desdemona

win their appeal, and Desdemona is to stay with Iago, until she can come to

Cyprus and meet Othello there.

Roderigo is upset that Desdemona and Othello's union was allowed to stand,

since he lusts after Desdemona. But Iago assures him that the match will

not last long, and at any time, Desdemona could come rushing to him. Iago

wants to break up the couple, using Roderigo as his pawn, out of malice and

his wicked ability to do so.

Act II, scene i:

A terrible storm has struck Cyprus, just as the Turks were about to

approach. This might mean that the Turkish attack will not happen; but it

also bodes badly for Othello's ship. A messenger enters, and confirms that

the Turkish fleet was broken apart by the storm, and that Cassio has

arrived, though Othello is still at sea. They spot a ship coming forth; but

Iago, Desdemona, and Emilia are on it, not Othello. Cassio greets them all,

especially praising Desdemona; somehow, Iago and Desdemona enter into an

argument about what women are, and Iago shows how little praise he believes

women deserve. Othello arrives at last, and is very glad to see his wife

arrived, much earlier than expected; he and Desdemona make public signs of

their love, and then depart. Iago speaks to Roderigo, convincing him that

Desdemona will stray from Othello, as she has already done with Cassio. He

convinces Roderigo to attack Cassio that night, as he plans to visit

mischief on both Othello and Cassio.

Act II, scene ii:

Othello's herald enters, to proclaim that the Turks are not going to

attack, all should be joyful, and Othello is celebrating the happiness of

his recent marriage.

Act II, scene iii:

Iago and Cassio are on the watch together; Iago gets Cassio to drink a bit,

knowing that he cannot hold his liquor at all. Iago also tries to get

Cassio's feelings about Desdemona, and make her seem tempting to him; but

his intentions are innocent and friendly, so this approach fails. Cassio

leaves for a bit, and Iago says that he intends to get Cassio drunk, that

will hopefully cause a quarrel between Cassio and Roderigo, who has been

stirred up against Cassio. Iago wants to see Cassio discredited through

this, so that he might take Cassio's place. Montano and others come, and

Iago entertains them with small talk and song; soon, Cassio is drunk, and

Roderigo has approached. Cassio fights offstage with Roderigo, and comes

forth, chasing him; Montano tries to hinder Cassio, but Cassio just ends up

injuring him. All the noise wakes Othello, who comes down to figure out

what has happened. Montano tells what he knows of it all, and Iago fills in

the rest‹making sure to fictionalize his part in it all too. Cassio is

stripped of his rank, and all leave Cassio and Iago alone.

Cassio laments that he has lost his reputation, which is very dear to him.

Iago tries to convince him that a reputation means little; and, if he talks

to Desdemona, maybe he can get her to vouch for him with Othello. This will

help Iago get the impression across that Desdemona and Cassio are together,

which will make Othello very angry if it works. Iago then gives a soliloquy

about knowing that Desdemona will speak for Cassio, and that he will be

able to turn that against them both.

Act III, scene i:

The third act begins with a little bit of comic relief; a clown is mincing

words with a few musicians, then has a little wordplay with Cassio, who

bids the clown to go and see if Desdemona will speak with him. Iago enters,

and Cassio tells him that he means to speak to Desdemona, so that she may

clear things up with Othello. Emilia comes out, and bids Cassio to come in

and speak with Desdemona about his tarnished reputation.

Act III, scene ii:

Othello gives Iago some letters that need to be delivered back to Venice,

which Iago is in turn supposed to give to a ship's pilot who is sailing

back to Venice.

Act III, scene iii:

Desdemona decides that she wants to advocate for Cassio. She tells Emilia

so, and that she believes Cassio is a good person, and has been wronged in

this case; she pledges to do everything she can to persuade her husband to

take Cassio back. Cassio speaks with her briefly, but leaves just as

Othello enters because he does not wish for a confrontation. Iago seizes on

this opportunity to play on Othello's insecurities, and make Cassio's exit

seem guilty and incriminating. Othello then speaks to Desdemona, and

Desdemona expresses her concern for Cassio; she is persistent in his suit,

which Othello is not too pleased about. Othello says he will humor her, and

the subject is dropped for a while.

Iago then plays on Othello's insecurities about Desdemona, and gets Othello

to believe, through insinuation, that there is something going on between

Desdemona and Cassio. Othello seizes on this, and then Iago works at

building up his suspicions. Soon, Othello begins to doubt his wife, as Iago

lets his insinuations gain the force of an accusation against her. Othello

begins to voice his insecurities when it comes to Desdemona, and himself as

well. Desdemona enters, and they have a brief conversation; Othello admits

that he is troubled, though he will not state the cause.

Desdemona drops the handkerchief that Othello gave her on their honeymoon;

Emilia knew that her husband had wanted it for something, so she doesn't

feel too guilty about taking it. Emilia gives it to Iago, who decides to

use the handkerchief for his own devices. Othello re-enters, and tells Iago

that he now doubts his wife; Othello demands "ocular proof" of Desdemona's

dishonesty, so Iago sets about making stories up about Cassio talking in

his sleep, and says that Cassio has the handkerchief that Othello gave to

Desdemona. Iago knows how important this handkerchief is to Othello; it was

his first gift to Desdemona, and was given to him by his mother. Othello is

incensed to hear that Desdemona would give away something so valuable, and

is persuaded by Iago's insinuations and claims to believe that Desdemona is

guilty. Othello then swears to have Cassio dead, and to be revenged upon

Desdemona for the non-existent affair.

Act III, scene iv:

Desdemona asks the clown where Cassio is; the clown goes off to fetch him.

Desdemona is looking everywhere for the handkerchief, very sorry to have

lost it; she knows that her losing it will upset Othello greatly, although

she claims he is not so jealous that he will think ill of the loss. Othello

enters, and asks for Desdemona's handkerchief; she admits that she does not

have it, and then Othello tells her of its significance and alleged magical

powers. Desdemona does not like Othello's tone; he seems obsessed with this

object, and Desdemona is so frightened by him that she wishes she had

nothing to do with it. She interrupts Othello's inquiry by bringing up

Cassio's attempt to get back into Othello's favor; Othello becomes angry,

and storms out. Desdemona and Emilia both note that Othello is much

changed; he is unkind and seems jealous, and they are suspicious of the

change in him.

Cassio then enters, with Iago; he laments that his suit is not successful,

and that Othello does not seem likely to take him back. Desdemona is sorry

for this, since she knows that Cassio is a man of worth; she tells Cassio

and Iago that Othello has been acting strange, and is upset, and Iago goes

to look for him, feigning concern. Emilia thinks that Othello's change has

something to do with Desdemona, or Othello's jealous nature; they still

cannot fathom what has happened, and exit, leaving Cassio.

Bianca comes in, and Cassio asks her to copy the handkerchief that he found

in his room; it is Desdemona's handkerchief, though Cassio has no idea. He

claims he does not love her, and gets angry at her for allegedly suspecting

that the handkerchief is a gift of another woman. But, Bianca is not

disturbed, and leaves with the handkerchief.

Act IV, scene i:

Othello is trying, even after swearing that Desdemona was unfaithful, not

to condemn her too harshly. He is talking with Iago about the handkerchief

still, and its significance in being found; but, soon, Iago whips Othello

into an even greater fury through mere insinuation, and Othello takes the

bait. Othello falls into a trance of rage, and Iago decides to hammer home

his false ideas about his wife. Iago calls Cassio in, while Othello hides;

Iago speaks to Cassio of Bianca, but Othello, in his disturbed state,

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