Экономика Великобритании и диалектика её развития

Government and Industry.

The Department of Trade and Industry has specified its objectives for industrial policy as:

-working for trade liberalisation;

-promoting British exports;

-stimulating innovation;

-improving the flow of information to business;

-encouraging competition;

-working towards a light but effective framework of market regulation;

-reducing administrative burdens on business;

-consulting business and consumers when developing policy; and

-helping the less well-off regions.

Small Firms

Small businesses employ more than a third of the private sector workforce and are responsible for one-sixth of total turnover. The Government provides financial assistance and guidance to help with problems affecting small companies.

Inward Investment

Britain is considered an attractive location for inward investment, because of its membership of the EC and proximity to other European markets, And low corporate and personal taxation. Foreign-owned firms are offered the same incentives by the Government as British-owned ones.

Regulation of Markets

While preferring to let markets operate as freely as possible, the Government recognises that intervention is sometimes needed. Hence, it regulates monopolies, mergers, anti-competitive practices, restrictive trade practices, and resale price maintenance. In 1991 six monopoly situations were reported on and 185 mergers qualified for investigation.

Education and Training

The Government takes steps to see that education and training are broadly based and that people of all ages can acquire relevant knowledge and skills. Industrial and commercial matters are being given a more prominent place in school and post-school curricula, and business people are playing a bigger role in the management of educational institutions.

The Government has established a network of business-led local bodies to supervise training, education and enterprise programmes on its behalf.

Public Finance.

Central government raises money from individuals and companies through direct and indirect taxation. It spends money on goods and services, such as health and defence, and as payments to people, for instance, social security.

The main sources of revenue are personal income tax, corporation tax, petroleum revenue tax, inheritance tax, capital gains tax, valued added tax (VAT), and customs and excise duties.

Other sources include National Insurance contributions, vehicle excise duty and local taxes on people and businesses.

Industrial Sectors.

In some sectors of the economy, a small number of large companies are responsible for a sizeable percentage of total production, notably in the vehicle, aerospace and transport equipment industries. Private business concerns account for the greater part of activity in agriculture, manufacturing, construction, distribution, and financial and miscellaneous service sectors. Over half of companies' funds for investment are internally generated. Banks are the chief source of external finance, although firms are turning increasingly to equity finance.

Around 250 British industrial companies each have an annual turnover of more than $500 million. British Petroleum (BP) is the eleventh largest industrial grouping in the world and the second largest in Europe. Five British firms are among the leading 25 European Community companies.

The ten largest manufacturing concerns are BAT Industries (tobacco products, food, etc), Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI), Grand Metropolitan (food, drink, etc), British Aerospace, Unilever (chemicals), Hanson Trust (various), Ford, General Electric Company (GEC-electronics), British Steel, and SmithKline Beecham (pharmaceuticals).

In 1991 the largest output within manufacturing was in electrical and instrument engineering ($13,700 million); followed by food, drink and tobacco ($13,600 million); mechanical engineering ($12,600 million); paper, printing and publishing ($11,600 million); and chemicals and synthetic fibres ($10,800 million).

The average manufacturing company is fairly small. Four-fifths employ fewer than 20 people. These make up 10 per cent of the manufacturing workforce. Businesses employing more than 1,000 people, 0.4 per cent of all businesses, account for 55 per cent of employees.

Power Generation

Britain has the largest energy resources of any EC country. Almost all the country's energy is provided by oil, natural gas and coal. The electricity supply and gas industries have been privatised, with gas increasingly used to produce electricity in combined cycle gas turbine power stations. Around 20 per cent of electricity is supplied by nuclear power stations.

British companies sell a vast range of plant and equipment to the energy industries.

Offshore Industries

Britain is the world's ninth largest oil producer and the fifth largest gas producer. Developing North Sea oil and gas has created a huge support industry offering equipment and services to oil and gas companies at home and abroad.

The two leading British oil companies are BP and Shell (the latter is part Dutch). The offshore services industry recorded orders for development work worth $6,000 million in 1991, nearly 80 per cent of which went to British firms.

Mineral and Metal Products

Producing about 80 per cent of Britain's crude steel, British Steel is the fourth biggest steel company in the Western world.

Just under half of total output is exported. The major areas of steel production and processing are in Wales, northern and eastern England, and the English Midlands.

In addition to its large output of non-ferrous metals and their alloys, like aluminium and copper, Britain is also a major producer of specialised alloys for the aerospace, electronic, petrochemical, nuclear and other fuel industries. Titanium and titanium alloys, for example, are used in aircraft production. The ceramics industry manufactures domestic pottery, sanitaryware and tiles. Britain is the world's leading manufacturer and exporter of fine bone china.

Chemicals and Synthetic Fibres

Britain's chemical industry is the third largest in Western Europe. The country's fourth biggest manufacturing industry, it exports nearly 50 per cent of production, making it Britain's biggest single export earner. The most rapid growth in recent years has been in pharmaceuticals, pesticides and cosmetics. ICI is the fourth largest chemical company in the world and one of Britain's largest exporting companies.

The most important products in the organic chemicals range are ethylene, benzene and propylene. A substantial proportion of world research and development in agrochemicals is conducted in Britain. Notable British discoveries include pyrethroid insecticides, ICI's diquat and paraquat herbicides, systemic fungicides and aphicides, and genetically engineered microbial pesticides.

Much of inorganic production consists of relatively simple bulk chemicals, such as sulphuric acid, serving as basic materials for industry.

Expansion in the plastics sector recently has been mainly in thermoplastics. ICI manufactured the world's first biodegradable thermoplastic, Biopol, used as a slow release agent for drugs and herbicides, and for making non-polluting bottles and films. ICI is the word's largest paint producer.

The pharmaceutical industry's trade surplus of $1,280 million in 1991 was the second largest of all manufacturing sectors. Employing over 87,000 people directly, pharmaceuticals supports employment for a quarter of a million others in related activities. Britain is the world's fourth largest exporter of medicines, with British firms making three of the world's ten best-selling medicines, including Glaxo's ulcer treatment Zantac and ICI's beta-blocker Tenormin. Retrovir is an approved treatment for HIV infection developed by Britain's Wellcome Foundation.

Britain is active in biotechnology research and has made major advances in the development of drugs such as human insulin and genetically-engineered vaccines.

Mechanical Engineering and Metal Goods

Major products include plant and machinery for industries such as chemicals, power and water, as well as fabricated steelwork for bridges, buildings and industrial installations. Britain is among the Western word's biggest producers of tractors. Almost all the output of machine tools is purchased by domestic industries. Most sales of textile machinery are to export markets. Overseas orders for mining machinery and tunnelling equipment are also substantial.

Electrical, Electronic and Instrument Engineering

An extensive range of computer hardware systems and associated equipment and software is produced in Britain. Amstrad is Britain's best-selling personal computer firm. Several leading overseas manufacturers - such as ICL, IBM, Unisys and Compaq - have manufacturing plants in Britain.

British firms and research bodies have been active in developing new semiconductor materials like gallium arsenide, which can help computers work much faster.

British Telecom (BT) is the main customer for communications network equipment. Supported by a technically advanced cable industry, it has led in the development of optical fibre communications systems.

Firms such as GEG and Oxford Instruments make sophisticated electronic medical equipment, for example, ultrasound scanners.

Motor Vehicles

The present recession has hit the motor vehicles industry particularly hard. Car output is dominated by Rover (which is British), Ford, Vauxhall, Pegeot Talbot and Nissan. Two other Japanese manufacturers have also established themselves in Britain - Honda and Toyota. The motor components industry, consisting of over 2,000 firms, is an important employer.

Shipbuilding and Marine Engineering

The largest sector is devoted to the building and conversion of warships for the Royal Navy and overseas government. British yards also build merchant vessels, including gas carriers and offshore support and research vessels. Marine equipment - for example, ships' engines and navigation systems - is an important sector too.

More than 20 years of oil and gas exploitation in the North Sea have generated a major offshore industry manufacturing platforms, drilling rigs, jack-up rigs and offshore loading systems.

Aerospace

With about 300 companies employing around 150,000 people, Britain's aerospace industry is the third largest in the world. Over 70 per cent of production is exported. Since the ending of the “Cold War” production is focusing more on civil products; at present spending on civil and defence products is about equal.

As Britain's leading manufacturing exporter, British Aerospace (BAe) produces both civil and military aircraft, satellites, space systems, guided weapons and components. Civil aircraft include the RJ regional jetliner series (formerly the 146) and the best-selling 125 middle-sized business jet. The company has a 20 per cent share in Airbus Industrie, which manufactures a family of airlines.

BAe's military production includes the vertical/short take-off Harrier and the Hawk fast jet trainer. It is also a partner in producing the Tornado combat aircraft.

Shorts of Belfast manufactures wings for the Fokker 100 jetliner and is involved in producing the 50-seat Canadair jet airlines. Westland is a partner in developing the multi-role three-engine EH 101 helicopter.

One of the three major aero-engine manufacturers in the Western world, Rolls-Royce manufactures engines for civil aircraft as well as for military aircraft and helicopters. The latest variant of its RB211 turbofan, the Trent, is presently the world's most powerful turbofan in development. Rolls-Royce is a partner in the International Aero Engine consortium, which makes the V2500 low-pollution aero-engine, now in service on the Airbus A320.

British aviation equipment companies have made significant technological advances. They supply navigation and landing systems, engine and flight controls, power systems, flight deck control and information systems, including head-up displays, of which GEC Avionics is the world's biggest manufacturer. British firms have also been active in developing flight simulators and “fly-bywire” technology, in which the aircraft's control surfaces are manipulated electronically.

British companies like BAe, Marconi and GEC are engaged in producing satellites and equipment for the European Space Agency and others.

Other manufacturing

Other major industries include and furniture, paper, printing and publishing, rubber tyres and tubes toys, sports equipment and jewellery.

Service Industries

Services account for 65 per cent of Britain's gross domestic product and 71 per cent of employment. Services have generally experienced the fastest growth in recent decades. However, with the onset of recession, output dropped by 1.7 per cent in 1991, and spending on services declined by 2 per cent in real terms.

Financial Services

Britain is a major financial centre, housing some of the world's leading banking, insurance, securities, shipping, commodities, futures and other financial services and markets. The markets for financial and related services have grown and diversified greatly over the past decade. The heart of the industry is the collection of markets and institutions in and around the “Square Mile” in the City of London. This area has:

-the greatest concentration of banks in the world - responsible for about 20 per cent of total international bank lending;

-the world's biggest insurance industry - with about 20 per cent of the international market;

-one of the world's largest stock exchanges;

-the largest foreign exchange market in the world, with an average daily turnover of about $200,000 million;

-the role of principal international centre for transactions in a large number of commodities; and

-a full range of legal, accountancy and management consultancy services which contribute to London's strength as a financial centre.

Distributive and Allied Trades

In 1991 the distributive and allied trades employed some 3.4 million people and contributed about a sixth of national income. In recent years, the large multiple retailers have grown in size, reducing numbers of stores but increasing outlet size and diversifying their product ranges. Many towns and cities have purpose-built shopping centres. A number of regional out-of-town centres have also been established - one of the first was the Metro Centre at Gateshead, Tyne and Wear, which is the largest of its kind in Europe. Large retailers and wholesalers of food, drink and clothing operate their own extensive distribution networks using fleets of trailers, vans and lorries. In the food and drink trade almost all large retailers have their own buying and central distribution operations. Retailers are encouraged by discounts and other incentives to buy as much as possible from wholesalers. This has given small retailers the advantages of bulk buying and co-ordinated distribution.

Information technology is having a major impact on British retailing. Bar-codes on retail products are scanned at the checkout to generate a price and to store instant information about the depletion of its stock. Electronic data interchange (EDI) enables data contained in invoices and orders to be transmitted electronically, rather than by printing and posting a paper document. These systems are used increasingly, even by small independent retailers.

Computing Services

The computing services industry is now as large as the hardware market and is expanding more rapidly. Important areas for software development are data and word processing, telecommunications, computer-aided design and manufacturing, defence and consumer electronics. The financial services sector is a major user of computer systems. Logica, a leading British systems company and consultancy, has developed systems for the “LIoydslink” service that enables LIoyds Bank's corporate customers to conduct banking business using their personal computers.

The major retail banks and building societies operate about 18,000 automated teller machines or cash dispensers and nearly 200,000 terminals in retail outlets allow shoppers to pay for goods using a debit card to transfer funds electronically.

Промышленный переворот.

В конце XVII в. в Англии после революции, окончательно покончившей с феодализмом, установился буржуазно-демократический политический строй, продолжающий в основном существовать и в наше время. А сама Англия, победившая в борьбе за господство на морях в XVI в. Испанию, в XVII в. -- Голлан-дию, в XVIII в. -- Францию, превратилась в мировую супердержаву. Оставаясь небольшой страной, она стала центром огром-ной колониальной империи, куда входила почти вся Северная Америка, Индия и другие регионы. Это означало приток новых капиталов в английскую промышленность и растущий спрос на английские промышленные товары.

Почему капитализм побеждает только со второй половины XVIII в.? Потому что только с этого времени начинается промыш-ленный переворот -- переход от мануфактуры к фабрике, от руч-ного труда к машинам. Мануфактура с ее ручным трудом еще не может использовать все преимущества капитализма, преимуще-ства крупного производства перед мелким. Но промышленный переворот -- это не только переворот в тех-нике, он сопровождается изменениями и в общественных отношени-ях. Увеличивая производительность труда, т.е. количество продук-ции на занятого работника, машины увеличивают величину лишь прибавочного продукта, а необходимый продукт остается прежним. Если при переходе к машинам рабочий производит в 10 раз больше продукции, чем производив прежде, то его зарплата, расходы на его содержание не увеличиваются в 10 раз. Промышленный переворот завершает формирование двух классов буржуазного общества -- бур-жуазии и рабочего класса. Если на мануфактурной стадии производства рабочий еще мог надеяться стать хозяином, то завести оснащенную машинами фаб-рику на свои сбережения рабочий явно не мог. Между рабочим и капиталистом вырастает стена.

Сущность промышленного переворота в Англии.

В разных странах переворот происходил в разное время, но раньше всего он произошел в Англии. Началось с новой тогда от-расли промышленности -- хлопчатобумажной. Хлопчатобумажное производство с древности было развито в Индии. Оттуда ткани из хлопка привозили в Англию, и народ их охотно раскупал, потому что они были относительно дешевыми. Английские промышлен-ники попытались наладить хлопчатобумажное производство у себя дома, но оказались не в состоянии конкурировать с индийскими ткачами, ткани которых были и лучше, и дешевле. Перед хозяева-ми английских хлопчатобумажных мануфактур встала задача усовершенствовать производство, чтобы снизить стоимость продукции. Эта задача и была выполнена в результате серии изобретений.

Как известно, текстильное производство, в том числе и хлопчатобумажное, состоит из двух операций: сначала прядилыцики готовят пряжу, а потом ткачи ткут из этой пряжи ткань. В каждом из этих процессов были поочередно сделаны изобретения.

Началось с того, что в 30-х гг. XVIII в, Кэй усовершенствовал ткацкий станок -- изобрел «летучий челнок», который ударами ракеток перебрасывался с одной стороны станка на другую. Раньше это приходилось делать вручную, и ширина ткани ограничивалась длиной рук рабочего. Теперь мож-но было ткать более широкие ткани и делать это гораздо быстрее.

Изобретение Кэя значительно ускорило работу ткачей, но те-перь им стало не хватать пряжи. Недостаток пряжи вызвал ее вздо-рожание. Возникла диспропорция между двумя операциями.

После этого в результате трех изобретений (Харгревса, Хайса и Кромптона) в 60-70-х гг. XVIII в. была создана прядильная маши-на, которая настолько повысила производительность труда пря-дильщиков, что вызвала обратное несоответствие -- ткачи не ус-певали перерабатывать изготовленную пряжу.

Эта диспропорция была устранена изобретением в 80-х гг. XVIII в. ткацкого станка Картрайта, который повысил произво-дительность труда ткачей в 40 раз.

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